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REPORT FROM A VISIT TO CHINA BY A DELEGATION
FROM THE OSLO COALITION
15. - 30. November 2002
by Egil Lothe, Knut Espen Arnesen, and Koen
Wellens
Participants:
Knut Espen Arnesen
Egil Lothe
Koen Wellens
Institutions visited:
Beijing
State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA)
Dongye Miao (Daoist monastery)
Guanghua Si (Buddhist monastery)
Yong He Gong (Tibetan Buddhist monastery)
Guangji Si (Buddhist monastery)
China Buddhist Association
Miaoying Si (Buddhist monastery)
Baiyun Guan (Daoist monastery / college)
China Daoist Association
Fayuan Si (Buddhist monastery / college)
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Huang Si (Tibetan Buddhist monastery)
Tibetan Buddhism College
Hebei
Shijiazhuang: Hebei SARA
Zhao County: Bailin Si (Buddhist monastery)
Shanxi Wutai Mountain (Buddhist sacred mountain):
Pushou Si (Buddhist college for nuns)
Pusa Ding (Tibetan Buddhist monastery)
Xiantong Si (Buddhist monastery)
Dailuo Ding (Buddhist monastery)
Guangren Si (Tibetan monastery)
Taiyuan:
Chongshan Si (Buddhist monastery
Shanxi Buddhist Association
Tibet Lhasa:
Drepung gompa (Tibetan monastery)
Sera Gompa (Tibetan monastery)
Potala Podrang (former palace of the Dalai Lama)
Jokhang (Tibetan monastery)
Tibet SARA
Tibet Buddhist Association
Norbulinka (former residence of the Dalai Lama)
Doelma Lhakhang (Tibetan monastery)
INTRODUCTION
A delegation from the Oslo Coalition visited China for the first
time 21.03.00 - 01.04.00. In September 2001 the Oslo Coalition hosted
a visit by a delegation of leaders of the five recognized religions
in China and representatives of the State Administration for Religious
Affairs. The dialogue with China was continued in 2002 through a
visit to China by a delegation from the Oslo Coalition 15.11.02
- 30.11.02.
Purpose of the visit
The purpose of the visit was to further the dialogue with the Chinese
authorities through:
1. developing the relations with Buddhist and Daoist leaders
in China .
2. developing our understanding regarding the situation of Buddhism
(including Tibetan Buddhism) and Daoism in China in relation to
the issue of freedom of religion.
3. developing the dialogue on freedom of religion with relevant
persons and institutions in China
specifically related to these religions.
The reason for describing the purpose of the visit in these terms
is our understanding that dialogue implies developing mutual relations
were the parties concerned relate to the issue, not just in terms
of intellectual understanding but also in terms of the attitude
to the issue, as well as to the dialogue partner that will contribute
to a positive response.
Having the interest as well as the knowledge regarding the specific
Chinese aspects of this issue is therefore crucial in this connection.
As for the reasons for choosing the two religions mentioned above
we refer to the paragraph on Buddhism below.
Our host
The crucial role played by the Chinese state in relation to the
religious organizations and institutions makes the state body administering
religious affairs: State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA),
a very important dialogue partner. This situation is underscored
by the fact the SARA was our host during our stay in China, planning
our itinerary on the basis of the wishes expressed by the Oslo Coalition
and conveyed through the Norwegian embassy in Beijing.
The Director of SARA, Mr. Ye Xiaowen, giving a speech at the
Seventh
National Conference of the CBA in Beijing 2002
During our entire visit in China we were accompanied
by representatives from the national SARA as well as from local
branches of SARA. With one exception, this was also the case during
our meetings with representatives of monasteries and religious institutions.
Thus all the conversations that took place within this framework
indirectly became a part of our dialogue with SARA, and as such
a useful aspect of the situation in which communication took place.
The very fact that religious leaders are supposed to express points
of view in line with the state policies may in certain cases give
added significance to some of their statements.
Serthar Institute in the summer of 2001
The program was by and large in accordance with the
wishes of the Oslo Coalition. The only major change was that SARA
did not include a visit to the Tibetan Buddhist institute in Serthar
in the Sichuan province. This place has during the 1990s become
one of the largest sites in the world for Buddhist studies, with
approximately 8.000 monks and nuns studying Buddhism under the leadership
of a very prominent Tibetan lama: Ven. Jigme Phuntsok. It has also
been reported that 800 of these student were from the Han Chinese
nationality. From the summer of 2001 onwards it has been reported
in Western media that this institution was subject to an official
intervention aiming at reducing the student population at the site
to about 1.400 monks and nuns. This intervention lasted throughout
the autumn of 2001, and continues today to the extent that the site
is under surveyance to prevent monks and nuns from returning to
the institute . This site was understandably not first on the list
of places of Tibetan Buddhism that the government wanted to show
to a foreign delegation. It was therefore SARA itself that suggested
the delegation visit Lhasa in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR).
As it turned out, we are inclined to remark that this was by no
means a bad substitute. Rather surprisingly, the first secretary
of the political section of the Norwegian embassy was not granted
an entry permit to the TAR and was thus unable to join the delegation
during this part of our visit. This was obviously a disappointment,
as he had played a very important role in planning the visit. The
first secretary took part in the program of the delegation during
two of the days in Beijing .
Buddhism
A reason for the emphasis on Buddhism was the wish to have an empirical
focus for the dialogue on freedom of religion. Emphasizing one religion
gives a better chance to explore in depth the various aspects of
the practice of religion in contemporary China. During the previous
visit by the Oslo Coalition we had a distinct impression that Buddhism
appeared to enjoy a considerable degree of goodwill from the side
of the government while being subject to the same regulations that
apply to all recognized religions in China. In our view this would
suggest that Buddhism is a useful starting point for a constructive
dialogue on freedom of religion. A point in this regard is our understanding
that this dialogue should be based on a broad understanding of the
situation of the religions in China where one is also looking for
the strong points of the Chinese policies of religions. In this
perspective Buddhism appears to be a good point of reference. We
would also like to suggest another reason for focusing on Buddhism:
The importance of Chinese Buddhism in facilitating the approach
to Tibetan Buddhism, as these two forms of Buddhism are, in significant
respects, closely related. The fact that the situation of the Tibetans
living in China is an important part of any dialogue on freedom
of religion with China, points to the significance of this relationship.
As for the situation of Tibetans there are clearly particular issues
associated such as actual or perceived political dimensions. The
problems in relation to the acceptance of the specific religious
role of the Dalai Lama are obvious examples. During the visit we
therefore brought up these issues.
The international conventions
The Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (SP) with its General
Commentary to §18 and The Convention on the Rights of the Child
(RC) were referred to in our conversations as points of reference
of the numerous questions raised by the delegation. Although it
is only The Convention on the Rights of the Child that has been
ratified by the Chinese government, both documents have been signed
by China. Questions such as those referring to the rights of prisoners
to practice religion (mentioned explicitly in the General Commentary
to §18 of the SP) therefore constitute challenges to the government,
considering present policies. The right of children to practice
religion must also be taken into account, considering the provisions
in the RC.
The religious dimension
An important aspect of the dialogue on freedom of religions is,
in our view, the development of mutual openness and respect. A contributing
factor in this particular dialogue was, in our view, the fact that
participants on both sides shared a common religious faith, as two
of the members of the delegation are Buddhists as was the interpreter
chosen by our hosts (who was an employee of the China Buddhist Association).
The value of a common religious background was obvious in our meetings
with religious leaders, not the least in the TAR. The fact that
two of the members of the delegation speak Chinese and that one
member speaks some Tibetan was also positive contributing factors.
BUDDHISM IN CHINA
Students from Bailin monastery visiting the holy Buddhist mountain
of Wutai during the Summer of 2002
In China, Buddhism is represented by three different
traditions; the Chinese Mahayana Buddhism; the Tibetan Vajrayana
Buddhism; and Theravada Buddhism. The first is found among the Han
Chinese, the second among Tibetans, Mongols and other minority groups
in the northern and western parts of China (altogether about 7 million),
and the third among smaller minority groups in Yunnan province (altogether
about 1.5 million). Regarding the number of adherents among the
Han Chinese, it is difficult to give exact numbers, as Chinese Buddhism
has rites of initiation into the religion only for those who want
to practice the religion more intensively. Thus differences in estimating
the number of Buddhists are as much due to differences in defining
a "Buddhist" as to differences of view regarding the religious
faith and practice of the population. Estimates vary between 100
million and 600 million.
When it comes to the numbers of temples/monasteries and the number
of monks and nuns these are usually more specific although not necessarily
referring to the complete picture. The President of the China Buddhist
Association gave us the official figures: 5.000 monasteries and
"more than" 40.000 monks and nuns among the Han Chinese
Buddhists, 3.000 monasteries and 120.000 monks and nuns among the
Tibetan Buddhists, and 1.000 monasteries and 8000 monks among the
Theravada Buddhists. That these figures may be somewhat uncertain
can be inferred from the fact that the monks in the Bailin monastery,
who must be assumed to be among the best informed in China, suggested
100.000 as a more realistic number of Han Chinese monks and nuns.
It should also be mentioned that there are more than 40 colleges
set up for the purpose of educating monks and nuns as well as almost
40 Buddhist periodicals.
Abbot Jinghui handing out certificates to monks
in Bailin monastery - the summer of 2000
The three traditions of Buddhism in China are organized in the
China Buddhist Association (CBA) founded in 1953. It works in close
cooperation with the government institutions implementing the policies
on religion. In this it does not differ from the organizations set
up for the other religious communities in China. This fact is illustrated
on numerous occasions such as on the seventh national conference
of the CBA last year, when Mr. Ye Xiaowen, the Director of SARA,
was one of the main speakers.
THE VISIT
A major goal of the visit was to get a realistic understanding
of the situation of Buddhism (and to a lesser extent of Daoism)
with an emphasis on the relations between religion and State. We
therefore chose to visit educational institutions of Han-Chinese
and Tibetan Buddhism such as Fayuan Monastery and Huang Monastery
in Beijing and the monasteries Drepung and Sera in Lhasa as well
as centres of pilgrimage such as those found on Wutai mountain in
Shanxi, and monasteries/temples for laypeople such as those visited
in Beijing, Taiyuan and Lhasa.
Dongyue Temple and Miaoying Monastery
We began our program in the Dongyue Daoist temple in Beijing. Dongyue
Temple is one of the major Daoist temples in Beijing having been
supported by the emperors for hundreds of years. During the 1950ies
the temple was taken over by the government and was used for other
purposes. During the Cultural Revolution most of the statues were
destroyed. Just a few years back the temple was restored by the
government and opened to the public (charging a rather steep entrance
fee). The temple is not run by the official Daoist religious organisation
but by the Bureau of Cultural Relics (Wenwuju). Considering this
state of affairs, it was rather interesting to observe that the
temple was again a site for religious activities in the form of
offerings of incense and individual worship in front of the various
altars with statues of the deities of the Daoist religion. Peculiar
to this temple were small bricks with prayers to be hung in various
places at the premises. The large number of bricks hung up suggested
a considerable need among the population for this kind of practise.
A place belonging to the same category, which we also visited,
is the Miaoying Buddhist monastery which has the largest stupa in
Beijing, originating in the Yuan dynasty. The government has also
here invested considerable funds in renovating the site, and has
also opened it to the public. It is run by the Bureau of Cultural
Relics, but we noticed also here that the altars had been made ready
for religious use with offerings of candles, flowers and incense
as well as pillows for prostrations. In this monastery there was
also a Buddhist bookshop.
Guanghua Monastery
This monastery is the headquarters of the Beijing Buddhist Association
(BBA) and is an important centre for Buddhism in this city. About
30 monks live at its premises. According to abbot Yixue who, accompanied
by Mr. Xiangjun (Secretary General of the BBA), received us at the
monastery, there are between 300.000 and 500.000 Buddhist believers
in Beijing. More than 50.000 of them are attached to this monastery.
Presently there are 11 monasteries in Beijing being used as religious
sites. Seven of them are run by the BBA and four of them by the
CBA. However, the Beijing local government has recently promised
to return another 10 monasteries to the BBA, among these is the
famous Tianning Monastery. Abbot Yixue also made the statement that
at the end of the Qing dynasty there were around 500 Buddhist monasteries
/ temples in Beijing!
Main hall of the Guangji monastery
Guangji Monastery
This monastery is the headquarters of the China Buddhist Association
(CBA). We visited the monastery at the Buddhist full moon day. Many
people had arrived and filled up the courtyards as the temple buildings
were far too small to accommodate the crowd of believers. The monastery
gave a definite impression of being a place were committed Buddhists
assemble. After the formal worship many of them gathered in smaller
informal groups, in some cases listening to what appeared to be
Buddhist lay preachers. Distribution of Buddhist texts lead to queues
being formed immediately. We also visited a Buddhist bookshop facing
the street outside the monastery.
Abbot Yi Chang at the seventh national conference of the CBA
Almost 100 employees work in the offices of the CBA located within
the monastery. During our visit to the monastery we met leaders
of the CBA including the newly elected President, Ven. Yi Chang.
Present at the meeting were also Ven. Miao Hua, head of the Department
of Education, as well as Mr. Zhang Min, head of the Department for
External Relations. After the initial presentation of Buddhism in
China, we were invited to ask questions. We used this opportunity
to bring up the issue of the widely reported action taken by the
Chinese government against the Serthar Institute (see the introduction
to this report), as well as the issues of educating children and
the laity generally in Buddhism and the policies regarding the right
of prisoners to receive religious services from Buddhist monks.
The answers to our questions regarding the Serthar Institute were
basically a defence of the actions taken by the government telling
that the institute was "poorly administered", that the
conditions at the institute had become "chaotic", and
that Buddhist like all other citizens have to obey the law. Obviously
these answers did not come as a surprise to us, as we had not expected
to get anything but a defence of the official policies concerning
an issue such as this. Our purpose was rather to convey the fact
that actions such as these create considerable negative reactions
abroad.
Baiyun Temple
The China Daoist Association (CDA) has its headquarters in this
temple. Among the leaders of the CDA we met here were Ven. Sun Tongchang,
the vice secretary general of the CDA. The Cultural Revolution was
in many respect year zero for the religions in China and was a theme
that repeatedly came up in our conversations with religious leaders.
The Daoists at Baiyun Temple described the gradual expansion of
religious activities that had taken place after 1979 when such activities
were allowed again. The situation described was one of increasing
popular support of Daoism and of increasing self-confidence among
the Daoist believers, summed up by the touching statement: "The
believers have no fears anymore".
Entrance of the Baiyun Guan Daoist monastery
Fayuan Monastery
This is one of Beijing's ancient monasteries which has, with the
exception of the period from 1966 to 1979, continuously been a site
for Buddhist religious activities. In 1956 a college for the education
of Buddhist monks was established here. We met among others the
abbot and head of the college, Ven. Chuan Yin, as well as Mr. Yao
Changshou, head of the department of education of the college. The
college enrols 60 new students each year, and has altogether about
160 students. The college has established links with Sri Lanka,
where 20 of its students are now studying. Ven. Chuan Yin mentioned
that lay people are regularly taught Buddhism at the college. He
expressed great optimism with regard to the future of Buddhism in
China.
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS)
Here the delegation met leading representatives from the Institute
of World Religions, including the director of the institute Prof.
Zhuo Xinping (Christianity), Prof. Fang Guangchang (Buddhism), Prof.
Hajj Ibrahim Feng Jingyuan (contemporary religion) and Prof Kalsang
Gyal (Tibetan Buddhism). We were primarily interested in learning
about the present situation of the religions in China, in particular
that of Buddhism. Prof. Fang emphasised that Buddhism is growing,
that more young people turn to Buddhism and that also persons with
higher education become Buddhists. We also touched upon issues such
as that of the previously mentioned Serthar Institute, as well as
more general ones such as that concerning who is to decide if the
number of religious facilities are sufficient or not: the government
or the believers themselves? The answer we received to the last
question suggested to us that our commonly held emphasis on the
autonomy of the civil society may not be all that obvious within
Chinese society.
We got a definite impression of an institution representing a very
wide range of knowledge of the religious situation in China. We
also got the impression that the institute is willing to share its
knowledge with foreign visitors. Thus we would have liked to spend
much more time at the institute, especially as we also had to use
some of the limited time at our disposal to present the offer made
by the Oslo Coalition to host a Chinese guest researcher at the
University of Oslo.
Huang Monastery (Tibetan Buddhism College)
This monastery dates from the eighteenth century and is the site
of a famous marble stupa commemorating the Third Panchen Lama who
passed away at this monastery. The institute located here was established
by the Tenth Panchen Lama in 1987. The institute was set up for
the purpose of educating Tibetan "living buddhas" (tib.
tulku / ch. huofo) in Buddhist philosophy as well as in the Chinese
language and in Chinese laws and regulations regarding religion.
Presently there are 35 such students at the institute, while about
70 scholars are associated with the institute as researchers. At
the time of our visit the monastery was in the process of being
renovated so that the temple hall, which was now used for the teaching
of the students, could also be used by the public as a place of
worship. We met the leaders of the institute, including the director,
who was a Chinese lay scholar. The other leaders were Tibetan monks
as well as one Mongolian monk. Our question, based on various reports,
regarding an increasing number of Han-Chinese followers of Tibetan
Buddhism was answered affirmatively by the monks. We also asked
about the reported campaign to promote atheism in Tibet, which the
monks had not heard anything about. The issue of the Dalai Lama
was also brought up. Our impression here, as well as in other places
outside the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), was that the attitude
to the Dalai Lama was not so negative, although the rejection of
his role as a "splittist" is maintained.
Yong He Gong (monastery)
Another site for Tibetan Buddhism in Beijing is the Yong He Gong
monastery. This is the largest Buddhist monastery in Beijing housing
100 monks belonging to the Gelug sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The monastery
also contains a museum of Tibetan Buddhism displaying in a section
on the history of Tibetan Buddhism pictures of the 14th Dalai Lama.
Our monk guide brought to our attention the fact that the Dalai
Lama visited this monastery during the 1950ies and also gave Buddhist
teaching from the teaching throne in the main temple. This naturally
raised the question if the Dalai Lama might return one day and give
teaching in the place he had visited almost fifty years ago. This
issue was also brought up at the meeting we had with the vice abbot,
a Mongol from Liaoning province.
HEBEI PROVINCE (Nov. 21st, 22nd)
In Hebei Province we were hosted by the Provincial Bureau
of Ethnic and Religious Affairs who received us in the provincial
capital of Shijiazhuang. Here we were given a short introduction
with statistical information on the religious situation of the province:
all five religions are represented in Hebei , and the total number
of religious believers is 2,5 million: the largest group of registered
religious believers are the Catholics with 1 million, there are
3-400.000 Buddhist, 570.000 Muslims, 300.000 Protestants, and about
10.000 Daoist. It was acknowledged that the exact numbers of Daoists
and Buddhists are difficult to obtain. We were reminded that Daoism
and Buddhism have a solid base in China. There are more than 2.000
registered religious sites, with a clergy numbering about 3.000.
Knowing that the main reason for our visit to Hebei was to visit
the Ven. Master Jinghui in his monastery of Bailin, they pointed
out that after Master Jinghui had come to the province, great achievements
had been accomplished in religious work.
The Bailin monastery
Bailin Monastery (Zhao County)
Our purpose for visiting Bailin Monastery was to renew our contact
with Master Jinghui whom we had met in Beijing in 2000 and also
during his two visits to Norway in 1998 and in 2001. Since Master
Jinghui is the abbot of Bailin Monastery, this seemed to be the
perfect choice for fulfilling our wish to stay overnight in a Buddhist
monastery and experience monastic life in present-day China.
Bailin Monastery is one of the main monasteries of the Chan or
Zen Buddhist tradition in China. On the site there has been a monastery
probably since the Han Dynasty (third century CE). In modern times
an earthquake in 1966 and the Cultural Revolution took their toll,
and in 1988, when the monastery was reopened, there was only one
pagoda still standing. Master Jinghui was invited in 1988 by the
United Front Department (tongzhanbu) of the provincial CCP, and
thanks to his energetic efforts and his charisma he was able to
raise funds for a reconstruction and continuous expansion of the
monastery. We were shown an almost completed gigantic 'Ten-Thousand
Buddha Hall' which will be able to seat several thousand persons.
At the moment there were 130 resident monks, but this figure grows
considerably during the summer when many monks visit the monastery
for shorter periods. In 1998 a Buddhist college was established
at the monastery concentrating on the teaching of Chan and Pure
Land Buddhism. There are fifty students now. The monastery/college
has numerous contacts with foreign countries, including some guest
lecturers.
During our stay we witnessed that religious services
lead by the monks were attended in considerable numbers by local
people of all ages. However, in order to expand Buddhism in modern
Chinese society, the monks of Bailin Monastery have adopted more
effective means. In 2002 Bailin Monastery organised for the tenth
time a summer retreat in which about 300 persons participated. This
is a kind of summer camp where (mostly young) people from all over
China come to stay for a week. During the course the participants
also visit scenic sites associated with Buddhism. During the summer
retreat of 2002 the group visited the Wutai Mountains (see picture
on p. 5). The monks of Bailin Monastery explain the Dharma to them;
teach them to chant as well as to practise some simple meditation
techniques. The participants are recruited through the magazine
Chan (Zen) published at the monastery, and through the Internet.
This constitutes a very important way of spreading Buddhism among
a younger generation in search of spiritual values .
President Jiang Zemin visiting Bailin monastery - Autumn of 2001
Jiang Zemin's wife greeting abbot Jinghui in the Bailin monastery
- Autumn of 2001
It was obvious to us that Bailin Monastery and its range of activities
were viewed by the local and provincial officials with pride. A
visit by Jiang Zemin the previous year has certainly contributed
to a widespread assessment by officials on different administrative
levels of Buddhism and its institutions and activities as a positive
contribution to society. Some of the monks revealed that local authorities
had gone a long way in facilitating construction projects. In surprisingly
open discussions with us the monks also said that the attitude of
the local population and officials had changed a lot in the past
ten years: they were first viewed with suspicion, but now many officials
come to visit the monastery regularly. On a more general level they
were very pleased with the renewed assessment of Buddhism as having
contributed positively towards the nation, but at the same time
they complained that many monks did not use this opportunity to
make Buddhism play a more important role in society, for instance
by developing charitable projects or using modern media like the
Internet.
Buddhist charity work - monks from Bailin monastery delivering
food
Asked about education of children and whether people in prisons
receive visits of Buddhist monks, they said that the reason why
these things did not happen was because there was no tradition for
it in Chinese Buddhism. This was a point were Buddhism could be
easily sidelined by Christianity, which does have such a tradition.
The fact that we were having this kind of free and relaxed discussion
with some younger, bright, well-educated (they spoke excellent English)
monks was at least as revealing to the delegation as the actual
content of what we were talking about.
SHANXI PROVINCE
In Shanxi Province we visited Taiyuan and Wutai Mountain. A scheduled
visit to a Daoist Monastery at Mian Mountain was dropped because
of our wish to stay longer at Wutai Mountain. The following people
from the provincial level religious authorities accompanied us on
some or all visits: Liu Zhimin, Deputy Director of the Shanxi Nationalities'
and Religious Affairs Bureau, Wei Wangjun, Deputy Director General
of the same Bureau, Abbot Ven. Gen Song (Deputy Director of China
Buddhist Association, Chairman of Shanxi CPPCC, President of Shanxi
Buddhist Association). (For some figures on religion and believers
in this province, see below, in the paragraph on Chongshan Temple
in Taiyuan.)
Scene from Wutai Mountain
Wutai Mountain
Wutai Mountain in the north of Shanxi Province has through history
been one of the most important centres of Chinese Buddhism. Pilgrims
from all over China (including Tibet) have visited the many temples
built on the Five Terrace (wu tai) Mountain. After the Cultural
Revolution the area gradually regained its traditional role, and
today there are forty-seven monasteries, which is more than ever
before, and new ones presently under construction. There are two
Buddhist sects represented at Wutai: Xianzong (Pure Land and some
chan) and Mizong (tantrism or Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelug Sect).
Wutai is actually the main area for Xianzong. All together there
are more than 1,300 monks of Xianzong Buddhism at Wutai Mountain
and there are more than 300 lamas of the Gelug Sect. There are more
than 500 nuns living in five different nunneries. Also this is a
recent development: before 1949 there were no nunneries at Wutai.
This religious revival has not only considerably increased the number
of residing and itinerant monks, but has also lead to a development
where the annual number of devout pilgrims and curious tourists
now has reached millions. The area at the foot of the mountains
and in between the monasteries is packed with a chaotic collection
of restaurants, souvenir shops and hotels of all styles, and it
was obvious that the area constitutes a huge source of income for
small and large entrepreneurs, and, not the least, for the different
levels of government in Shanxi Province. Tourism also has other
effects on life in Wutai: a large portion of daily activities of
the monks is spent with tasks such as selling entrance tickets and
showing visitors around. One of the purposes of our visit to Wutai
Mountain was to find out how tourism affects the possibilities for
religious practice. The people from the Wutai Religious Affairs
Bureau told us that the authorities were planning a large-scale
clean-up of the construction chaos all around Wutai Mountain. Throughout
our stay at Wutai Mountain we came across evidence of recent visits
by prominent representatives of the central government and the Party
such as Li Peng, Jiang Zemin, Wang Zhaoguo and Ye Shaowen from SARA,
further testimonies of the official reassessment of the role of
Buddhism in modern Chinese society.
Meeting with abbots and abbess at Xiantong Monastery
During our three day stay we visited several of the monasteries
(Pure Land as well as Tibetan Gelug), Buddhist colleges, and one
nunnery. The most interesting and concise set-up was a meeting arranged
for us at Xiantong Monastery with several of the abbots and one
abbess of Wutai monasteries present: Kalsang Rabji (Chinese: Zhuoni
Gesang Rejie), abbot of Guangren Temple, Xi Ju, President of Wutai
Mountain Buddhist Association and abbot of Xiangtong Monastery,
Lukung, Miao Yin (abbess of Pushou nunnery and Buddhist college
at Wutai Mountain). The Xiangtong Monastery itself has eighty monks.
Abbess Miao Yin of the Pushou nunnery/college informed that they
have more than 360 students. The nunnery was founded in 1981 and
in 1991 they started teaching. They accept women from all provinces,
and now they even have an international department, mainly to accommodate
students from Taiwan, as well as from Malaysia and Singapore. She
answered affirmative to a question from us on whether Norwegian
Vietnamese nuns would be accepted at her college, and added that
as a newly established nuns' branch of China Buddhist University
they were now allowed to take in nuns directly from foreign countries.
She hoped the government would be more helpful in processing visas
quickly. Her nunnery had been visited by Ye Shaowen from SARA, and
Wang Zhaoguo from the United Front Department of the CCP.
Abbot Kalsang Rabji of the Tibetan Buddhist Guangren Monastery
gave the following information: all together there are 300 monks
of Tibetan Buddhism or lamas at Wutai Mountain: 100 Mongolians,
100 Tibetans, 100 Han Chinese, all from the Tibetan Gelug Sect.
The fact that also Han people are practicing Tibetan Buddhism is
an interesting new development, and we learned that several of the
Tibetan language texts of the Gelug Sect have been translated into
Chinese. These Han Gelug lamas come from all over China. Guangren
Monastery has a unique edition of the canonical texts, the Kanjur,
printed in Zhuone in Republican times which is now being scanned
into digital format. The monastery has relations with monasteries
in Tibetan areas such as Ta'er Si (Kumbum) in Qinghai and Labrang
in Gansu, where monks can go to continue their studies on a higher
level. During the last fifteen years there has been a great development.
In 1985, when Kalsang Rabji arrived on invitation by the Buddhist
Association, there were only three monks at Guangren Monastery,
and they had no money. Now, with strong support from the local government
and the Buddhist Association, they have forty resident monks, and
funds of three to four million Yuan. To our questions about the
effect of the campaign for patriotism, the abbot answered that to
'love the people and love the country' (an often used slogan in
Communist China) is also a precept of Buddhism. Asked about the
role of the Dalai Lama and the wish of His Holiness to visit Wutai
Mountain, the abbot said that they criticise the Dalai Lama as a
splittist, but, religiously he is still 'number one', and the common
people hope he will return to the motherland. As to the role of
tourism, the abbot's view was that tourism is good for Buddhism
and the other way around.
Taiyuan
We concluded our visit of Shanxi Province with a visit to Chongshan
Monastery in Taiyuan and a final meeting with the leaders of the
provincial Bureau of Religious Affairs.
Chongshan Monastery
Chongshan monastery was built during the Ming Dynasty and the buildings
miraculously survived both Japanese bombing and the Cultural Revolution.
There are forty resident monks practicing Pure Land Buddhism and
the place seems to attract many local believers. While we were visiting
there, itinerant monks from other places arrived to stay for some
time at the temple, free of charge. Especially in the summer the
place is visited by monks from all over China, many en route to
Wutai Mountain.
We had a very interesting talk there with the Ven. Gen Song, Deputy
Director of China Buddhist Association, Chairman of Shanxi CPPCC,
President of Shanxi Buddhist Association and abbot of another monastery
in Shanxi, Xuantong Monastery.
According to Ven. Gen Song there are many laymen attending Chongshan
Temple on a regular basis. He told us that on the 1st and 15th of
every month several thousand people come to this temple. For example
on the evening of the first day of the first month of the Lunar
Calendar the place is completely filled up. There are thirty-six
small temples in Taiyuan City. There are several hundred monks in
the City area. He puts the number of religious believers of all
the five official religions in Shanxi at 1.2 million. There are
400 Buddhist temples in Shanxi, but the total number of monks is
hard to know, it changes constantly; by the end of last year there
were 3,183 monks, 512 nuns, 1,600 of them in Wutai, but this number
increases markedly in summer. Asked about the teaching of the sutras
to the lay people, he answered that this happens on an irregular
basis, but he felt it was absolutely necessary to give the people
an understanding about what Buddhism is about. Apart from teaching
at the temple, they can spread Buddhism via the Internet and through
a magazine published occasionally by the Shanxi Buddhist Association.
Lhasa, Tibet
The delegation flew to Lhasa, Tibet on November 26th, and stayed
there until the 29th. Mr. Han from SARA and Mr. Wang from CBA accompanied
us during the visit. We were met at the airport by representatives
of SARA of The Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) and taken to a hotel
in the outskirts of Lhasa. Our Chinese companions from Beijing chose
to rest at the hotel due to the high altitude, for which the Chinese
have a deep respect. We, however, chose to go to the old part of
the city, to the Jokhang Temple and its surrounding Barkhor Street.
The entire area, including the sizable square in front of the Jokhang,
was crowded with people, many of whom were obviously pilgrims from
other parts of Tibet. One of the delegation members was approached
by a monk, who gave an account of his recent attempt to flee Tibet
to go and see the Dalai Lama in India. He told that he had been
arrested by the authorities and jailed for nearly a year under what
he described as rather extreme conditions. We had several similar
and unforeseen encounters with other Tibetans as well, who cautiously
expressed their support for the Dalai Lama and the conviction that
the current situation in Tibet could not prevail for ever. "Truth
always wins in the end", was one expression we heard.
View of Lhasa from Drepung monastery
Drepung Monastery, Lhasa (27th of November)
We were received at Drepung monastery -- before 1959 the world's
largest monastery with around 8.000 resident monks -- by the abbot,
the Venerable Lobsang Wangchuk, who is also the head of The Democratic
Administration Committee (DAC) running the monastery and recognized
as a Tulku, or Living Buddha. Also present at the meeting were representatives
of the local SARA of The Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR), who accompanied
us during most of our three day visit to Tibet. Contrary to our
earlier encounters and talks with religious leaders in China, the
representatives of SARA responded to the bulk of the questions on
religious and political issues we raised while in Drepung.
We were first taken by the Venerable abbot on a guided tour through
parts of the monastery, during which we observed one of the monks'
daily study and meditation / recitation sessions. The spacious hall
was nearly full of monks, as well as a sizable number of lay people
/ pilgrims. In addition we observed a steady stream of pilgrims
visiting the various shrines of the monastery.
During the meeting, we were informed that Drepung now has 800 monks,
of which 300 study the sutras. There are presently 35 who study
Buddhist tantra. For those wishing to become a geshe there is a
twenty year study program.
There are two categories of people entering the monastery:
o Some come in order to be a lama.
o Some were already lamas in other places, like Yunnan, Sichuan
etc., and come here to do advanced studies. They will study five
kinds of sutras, and some will study up to twenty years and then
return to their home monastery.
Q: Is there any contact with lamas who over the years have left
Drepung to live in India?
A: No, after they went to India they are not regarded as belonging
to this monastery.
We were informed that there are altogether four tulkus (Living
Buddhas) in Drepung, all of whom are now more then fifty years old.
In the case of a new incarnation, it is recognized by the present
Rinpoches (tulkus). Very important incarnations have to be reported
and approved by the government. The prescribed procedure is that
first the monastery decides, and then the government approves.
On the issue of the recognition by the Dalai Lama of the 11th Panchen
Lama reincarnation, we were told that this is a political issue
/ problem. The rationale of the Chinese Authorities for not accepting
the Dalai Lama's recognition was perhaps not totally unexpected,
but nevertheless surprisingly blunt in its overt and adamant urge
to hold the opposite view from someone one perceives as an adversary:
"Whoever the Dalai Lama recognized will not be accepted by
The Central Government because the Dalai Lama is a splittist."
We went on to raise the question of the democratic administration
committees (DAC). We asked the Venerable Abbot: Now, all monasteries
have a democratic administration committee (DAC). There are some
claims that these committees do not function independently of the
government. A representative from SARA of TAR subsequently gave
us the following answer: "This is not true. There is no government
interference. The leader of the DAC here at Drepung is the abbot.
All religious activities are decided by him, and the members of
the committee are chosen by the lamas themselves. This venerable
abbot is a standing committee member of the Buddhist Association
of the Tibet Autonomous Region."
On the more general issue of the organizing of Buddhism in TAR,
we were informed that every district and area of TAR has its own
local Buddhist association, and that Drepung, for instance, belongs
to the Buddhist Association of Lhasa.
There has been no change in the number of monks at Drepung over
the past five years. The Venerable abbot expressed his conviction
that in five years from now, there will surely be an increase from
the present
800 monks. Most Tibetans are Buddhists, and thus an increase in
the number of monks can be expected, he told us.
The often heard allegation that the number of monks and nuns is
actively being limited by the government was rejected as incorrect.
In stead, we were told, this is a matter that is decided according
to what was termed as "the needs of the believers". If
there are too many monasteries, this can become a burden on the
believers. During the time of - in the official Chinese parlance
- the old, theocratic system, Drepung had more than 8.000 monks.
Now, monasteries are required to be self-supporting. Drepung was
reported to cope well with this requirement. Small monasteries,
however, are often unable to be self-supporting. So the monks and
nuns there have to be supported by their families, or the government.
Sera monastery, Lhasa
Sera Monastery, Lhasa
During our guided tour of the monastery, we were informed that the
monastery houses 575 monks, plus some 200 student monks from different
Tibetan regions. We had no in-depth talks with any representatives
during our brief visit at Sera. We observed an even larger number
of pilgrims and lay people at Sera, compared to Drepung, presumably
due to Sera's relative proximity to Lhasa. A vibrant, traditional
Tibetan commercial and recreational area is situated in front of
the main entrance to the monastery. In the hills above the monastery,
we observed cave dwellings for solitary retreats.
Drepung and Sera leave one with the impression that both places
are important and active pilgrim sites. Due to the short time allotted
to us in each monastery, it was far beyond our reach to evaluate
the level of training offered in each place, or to enter into any
kind of more in-depth exchange with the resident monks.
More generally, during our visit to Lhasa, we got an impression
that some Buddhists are concerned about the level of training of
monks and nuns in the different fields of Buddhist studies. Improving
the standard of Buddhist studies is, according to them, crucial
to the future development of Tibetan Buddhism.
Jokhang Temple, Lhasa
Our visit to the Jokhang Temple, the main goal of pilgrimage in
Lhasa, came about in a somewhat improvised manner, due to the fact
that a prominent monk of the Jokhang had died earlier that day,
and a major ceremony was to be performed later in the afternoon.
We were most cordially welcomed by the Venerable Jigme Tsering,
leader of the Jokhang DAC, and Vice President of the Lhasa Buddhist
Association. He speaks excellent English, and we were given a guided
tour of the Temple with some in-depth information on its history
and current state. The tour was conducted in a Jokhang empty of
people, due to the fact that the entire compound was being made
ready for the ceremonies on the occasion of the previously mentioned
death of a prominent monk. Usually the Jokhang was, as we observed
later, teeming with incessant crowds of pilgrims presenting their
offerings and paying their respect to this holiest site of Tibetan
Buddhism. We observed that all the chapels of the Temple have been
repaired and reopened (The Jokhang was closed and its internal rooms
desecrated and almost totally destroyed during the Cultural Revolution).
We were surprised at the information that there has been a decrease
in the number of monks in the Jokhang during the past few years,
from 120 in 1996 to 94 at present. On the background of the information
about the number of monks being in accordance with the needs of
the believers, and the requirement to be self-supporting, we can
see no apparent reasons for such a decrease, the Jokhang being par
excellence the goal for countless pilgrims, and obviously large
enough to accommodate and support more monks than the present 94.
The Potala, Lhasa (28th of November)
The Potala Palace, once the residence of the Dalai Lamas, illustrates
in its own and very strong way the tense situation in Tibet of today.
On the one hand, the presence of surveillance cameras, uniformed
police and military guards keeping a watchful eye are very conspicuous
there. And on the other, the steady stream of Tibetan pilgrims offering
butter to keep the butter-lamps burning along the route visitors
are allowed to follow. We were told that there are 60 resident monks
in the Potala. Quite to our surprise, however, we found that many
were not wearing robes, but dressed as ordinary lay people. When
we addressed some of them in Tibetan, they told us that they come
from a number of other monasteries in the region. We later took
up the question with the authorities on the monks not wearing robes
there, but they insisted there is no official regulation in that
respect.
Meeting with representatives of SARA of the Tibetan Autonomous
Region
The official cognomen of SARA in the TAR is The Bureau of Nationalities
and Religious Affairs. Present at our two hour meeting in their
Lhasa HQ were Mr. Thubten, Director of SARA TAR, the Ven. Lobsang
Wangchuk, abbot of Drepung Monastery, the Ven. Adu Lobsang Chöpe,
abbot of Sera Monastery, the Ven. Jigme Tsering from the Jokhang
Temple and vice President of the Lhasa Buddhist Association, as
well as a number of persons from SARA TAR. The talk was conducted
from the SARA TAR side almost entirely by Mr. Thubten. We were given
a brief introduction to religions in TAR, and the three official
religions: Tibetan Buddhism, Islam and Catholicism.
There are around 3.000 Muslims, and 4 Muslim places of worship.
Close to the border with Yunnan Province, there is a Catholic congregation
with some 600 members. There are 1.700 Tibetan Buddhist temples
and shrines in TAR, and some 46.000 monks / lamas / nuns.
Mr. Thubten informed that the Central Government has given 400
million RMB yuan (around US $50 million) for repair and rebuilding
purposes of Buddhist temples and shrines. The Central Government
has also reinstated the traditional Tibetan Buddhist festivals and
the system of recognizing Living Buddhas, and established the Tibetan
Buddhist College in Beijing. According to Mr. Thubten, Tibetans
enjoy full freedom of belief, and all are free to attend all kinds
of Buddhist activities. "Religious freedom has become a private
and personal matter, without any restrictions" according to
Mr. Thubten. The following reforms were pointed out:
- Separation of religion and politics
- Separation of religion and education
- Full equality between believers and non-believers
- Religions cannot be run by foreign organizations
- All religious activities are the matter of the religious community
concerned
Two laws have been put into effect:
- One governing administrative regulations of religious affairs
- One regulating the involvement of foreigners in religious affairs
in China
Mr. Thubten went on to inform that the rights of monks and nuns
are well preserved, and all normal religious activities are protected.
The aim of the government was stated as being the protection of
legal activities, and the prevention of illegal ones, including
foreign control and crimes in the name of religion.
The rest of the meeting was in the form of a dialogue, where the
Norwegian delegation brought up a number of issues:
Q: According to international treaties ratified by China, all have
the right to practice religion, including prisoners. Does this apply
here in the TAR as well?
A: Only one kind of people cannot have a religious belief in this
country: members of the Chinese Communist Party. Apart from CCP
members, anyone enjoys the right of religious freedom. A prisoner,
however, finds him or herself in a different situation than before
he or she was imprisoned. Life inside and outside a prison are not
the same. It is the government's right to regulate a prisoner's
actions in prison, but not his or her thoughts.
Q: How about access in prisons to religious literature?
A: Maybe you are influenced by Western broadcasts? From early age,
people here recite Buddhist texts. If a person wants to practice,
he can recite fluently. Books and texts are not necessary. Tibetans
are not like Westerners. Here, people can recite religious texts
by heart!
Q: How about religious books that can inspire people to a better
way of life, like this book I found in a bookstore in Lhasa: "The
Life Story of Milarepa"? Can prisoners have access to this
kind of books?
A: All Tibetans know the life story of Milarepa. Normally, there
are no restrictions on the access to religious books and magazines,
and newspapers.
Q: Can a prisoner be granted visits by a lama, if he so wishes?
A: At special times, the prisoners can receive visits from their
relatives. Lamas do not do such visits, it is not the custom here.
Q: We would like to hear about the rights of children to practice
religion. Is practicing religion discouraged in any form from the
side of the educational system?
A: There are two laws regarding this: The law governing education,
and the law for the protection of children, i.e. persons under the
age of 18. In schools there is no religious education. Children
are free, however, to follow their parents to worship in their leisure
time. There are no limitations or restrictions.
Mr. Thubten denied the reports that children are not allowed to
wear a "sungdü" (the traditional Buddhist protection
cord) at school, and that wearing one can lead to fines / milder
forms of punishment. However, while in Tibet, we understood from
other sources that such a ban is in effect.
In reply to our question whether school curriculum encourage children
to be non-religious, Mr. Thubten reiterated that believing or not
believing is a personal matter. Some teachers are religious persons,
others are not, and this has no bearing on their status as teachers.
But teachers are not supposed to spread religion.
Our question about the 3 year campaign to promote atheism, announced
by Lhasa Radio in January 1999 , triggered the following answer:
"Between 1996 and 1999, there was a patriotic education campaign
in the
monasteries. Every citizen of The People's Republic of China should
accept patriotic education. Monks and nuns are first of all citizens
of PRC, so naturally they should accept this education".
Mr. Thubten affirmed that there have been cases of monks and nuns
having been imprisoned for political crimes. It is up to the court
to decide whether or not the prisoner will be allowed to return
to his or her monastery upon his or her release from prison. Such
a decision is based on the prisoner's assurance that he or she will
not commit the same crime again.
Q: Can a person who is not a member of the CCP, but holding a public
office, be a believer?
A: Yes. The vice-mayor of Lhasa for instance, is a prominent Buddhist.
The former vice-president of TAR was also a believer, and not a
CCP member.
The delegation went on to mention our observations from the Potala
Palace earlier that day remarking that we appreciated that the government
respects this place as a place of pilgrimage and worship, and that
a great deal obviously is being done to keep and repair the Palace.
The mere size of it also illustrates the significance of the Dalai
Lama in Tibetan Buddhism. We mentioned our surprise that the monks
there did there did not wear robes as we were used to in all Tibetan
monasteries known to us. The fact that monks in the Potala were
not wearing robes was explained as having pure practical reasons;
it is bothersome for them wear robes while doing manual labour,
such as painting etc. Mr. Thubten assured that the monks in the
Potala are free to perform any kind of religious activities there.
We wanted to know how SARA TAR views Tibetan Buddhism - as positive,
or problematic. Mr. Thubten started by pointing to the fact that
Tibetan Buddhism has a very solid base of theory, philosophy, art,
medicine, mathematics, logic, astronomy etc. Its strict precepts
were particularly mentioned as a very positive aspect, as well as
its diversity of schools. Without specifying, he also stated that
it has its shortcomings, before summing it all up by clarifying
the role of the government in relation to religions: Actively to
lead religions to adapt to the socialist society.
The delegation wished to use the opportunity to ask the venerable
lamas some questions as well:
Q: Society is changing and being modernized. There is a general
trend all over the world that less people become monks and nuns
now. What do the lamas do in order to spread knowledge about Buddhism
among lay people?
A (Ven. Lobsang Wangchuk, Drepung Monastery): As a monk, I have
the responsibility to spread Buddhism. I feel, spreading Buddhism
is not dependent on the number of lamas, but on their quality. Most
important are those who teach sutras, how they train and instruct
the students. Their ability to explain the sutras to lay people
is essential. We have the example of the one Rinpoche (prominent
teacher of Buddhism) at Drepung. Every year until he died in 1997
he taught the Dharma, gave initiations, and precepts. He would go
on teaching continually sometimes for two weeks, or one whole month
or even more. He not only taught the monks of Drepung, but also
lay people, who came in their tens of thousands to listen to his
teachings.
Q: In the past, many came to Lhasa from abroad, from places like
Mongolia, Russia etc., to study Buddhism. How is this now?
A: The three main monasteries in Lhasa are historically sites of
higher education. If foreigners wish to come here to get higher
education, they must apply for a permission to do so from the authorities.
Citizens of the PRC need not apply, but foreigners must.
Q: Some monks who left this country have founded monasteries abroad.
Some of them are very famous teachers abroad. Is it possible for
those who wish so to come and teach, and maintain contacts here?
A: There is a law regarding Tibetans living abroad. This law states
that a layman or a lama who returns here will be warmly welcomed.
If a lama wishes to return to his original monastery, he needs to
apply for permission from the authorities. There are certain requirements
in order to get such permission.
The young Pawo Rinpoche (left) with the 17th Karmapa Ugyen Thrinley
Dorje
We also took up the controversy over the recognition of the 11th
Panchen Lama. Gendün Chökyi Nyima has been confirmed by
the Dalai Lama as being the true incarnation, whereas Gyaltsen Norbu
has been recognized in the PR of China as the true incarnation.
This issue being an obvious matter of religious belief, we wished
to know whether the local government allows people to hold and express
whatever belief
they wish. In his reply, Mr. Thubten said that as a matter of fact,
there are two holy persons; one presented and recognized by the
government, and one illegal one recognized by the Dalai Lama. Mr.
Thubten reiterated the official stance that the Dalai Lama, for
his own political reasons, and contrary to traditional rites had
interrupted the search. The Dalai Lama's recognition is thus invalid.
He stressed that the local government allows people to believe in
whichever of the two they like. During our walks in Lhasa and visits
to monasteries, we saw no pictures of any of the two. Mr. Thubten
explained that pictures do exist, but in a limited number. The delegation
did not take up the fate of the Gendün Chökyi Nyima. We
did instead raise a similar, but less publicized issue: The fate
of Pawo Rinpoche's incarnation. Pawo Rinpoche died in France some
years ago, and his incarnation was found by the 17th Karmapa in
1995. A US report claims that the present Pawo Rinpoche is being
refused religious education by the authorities. Mr. Thubten said
he knew nothing about the religious education of Pawo Rinpoche,
his whereabouts or his activities.
At the end of our two hour meeting, Mr. Thubten chose to mention
Tsurphu monastery outside Lhasa, the traditional seat of The Karmapas.
(The present Karmapa fled Tibet in 1999, and now lives in India).
We were told that Tsurphu maintains a high level of spiritual training
on different levels, including teaching to lay people, and that
our delegation would be most welcome to go and see for ourselves,
time permitting. On several occasions during our encounters with
Tibetan officials, including at this meeting, we were encouraged
to come back to Tibet and continue the dialogue. This concluded
our meeting with SARA of TAR.
Our last day in Tibet included a visit to the Norbulinka, the summer
residence of the Dalai Lamas, and to The Tibet Museum. We were taken
on a guided tour of the Norbulinka, where we observed, painted on
one of the murals, one of the now rare portraits of the present
Dalai Lama. Pictures of him are otherwise forbidden in TAR. After
a brief visit to The Tibet Museum, we left Lhasa for the airport.
Approximately midway between Lhasa and Gongkar airport, we made
an improvised halt at one of Tibet's smaller, but very important,
religious sites: The Doelma Lhakhang at Nethang. This site is associated
with the teachings and death of one of the most prominent figures
in the history of Tibetan Buddhism, Dipankara Atisha (982-1054 CE).
There were scores of Tibetans filling the courtyard and the interior
of the shrine, and religious activities were very much in evidence.
On our part, we were content with the fact that we were able to
take up with the local Tibetan authorities a number of issues on
which the government of the PRC committed itself through the signing
and ratification of international treaties. We experienced a welcoming
and amicable attitude throughout our encounters with Tibetan officials,
and we have the firm impression that there is a will among our Tibetan
dialogue partners to continue the dialogue.
GENERAL IMPRESSIONS
Chinese Buddhism
During our visit to China a number of observations suggested that
the attitude of the government towards Buddhism has developed in
a rather positive direction, and that the climate for Buddhism within
Chinese society has progressively become quite favourable. Visits
made by various Chinese political leaders to Buddhist monasteries
can be interpreted as an indication of this tendency. This is also
suggested by the confident attitude we sensed from the Buddhist
leaders we met. More specifically Buddhism is clearly construed
in official discourse as a Chinese religion and as part of Chinese
traditional culture. Furthermore the high level political conference
on religious policies that took place in December 2001 underlines
the development in the government attitude to religion within Chinese
society . Positive descriptions in official media, such as in the
Peoples Daily, also suggests this shift in policy . To what extent
this shift in attitude also applies to the other religions can,
however, not be answered on the basis of the information obtained
during this visit alone.
When it comes to the principles of keeping religion away from functions
of society such as education, the prison system as well as matters
such as the registration of marriage and the like, the established
policies are still maintained. At the same time there appears to
be an incipient flexibility in some of these areas. However, the
principle that religions are required to adhere to a national and
patriotic stance as defined by the government still seems to be
firmly maintained.
Tibetan Buddhism
The application of these principles in the context of Tibetan Buddhism
in China has other consequences than in relation to Chinese Buddhism.
In the areas of China, inhabited by Tibetans, Buddhism has traditionally
had a far more central role within the society than what has been
the case in the other parts of the country. In the present situation
this obviously makes for more strained relations between the state
and the religion in these areas. The fact that the Han Chinese constitute
the dominant nationality within the PRC means that this relationship
also cuts across ethnic differences. This may also contribute to
tensions in this relationship. The conflict with the Dalai Lama
and the Tibetans living in exile, whose followers within the PRC
may occasionally challenge the very legitimacy of the PRC in these
regions, also has implications for the relationship between the
state and Tibetan Buddhism, making it very different from that found
between the Chinese state and Chinese Buddhism.
On this background the challenge of the government consists in
ensuring that the religion has a subservient and limited position
within the society so that it may not be utilized to the advantage
of Tibetan political interests, especially as these are defined
by exile Tibetans, and furthermore to ensure that the social role
of the religion is limited, for instance in relation to the educational
system, so that the non-religious character of the state is maintained.
These contradictions may in themselves not lead to problematic
policies in relation to the principles of religious freedom as defined
in the international treaties. However, the manner in which some
of these policies appear to have been implemented in the TAR and
other Tibetan regions is bound to cause concern and to raise questions
as to what extent the government of the PRC is prepared to fully
implement the standards of the international treaties regarding
the freedom of religion. Primarily this concerns the degree of government
control of religious institutions, such as in the administration
of monasteries, including also a very high degree of monitoring
of internal religious matters such as in the selection of incarnate
lamas, exemplified by the case of the 11th Panchen Lama. The fact
that monks and nuns, after having completed prison sentences for
political crimes, are refused to return to their home monasteries
can also be looked upon as such interference in internal religious
affairs.
The reports about the state propagating against religion (Tibetan
Buddhism in the TAR) and favouring a non-religious life stance,
such as in the atheism campaign announced in official media in the
TAR in 1999, suggests violations of the principle of non discrimination,
especially when the practice of religion by individuals, according
to some reports, has been punished with the loss of rights of pensions
and the like among teachers and government officials (as we have
seen above the occurrence of such practices are now being denied
by representatives of the government). The fact that individuals
have to renounce the right to practice a religion in order to be
member of the CCP is, however, clearly acknowledged. In view of
the central position of the CCP in the Chinese political system
it can thus hardly be claimed that believers and non believers enjoy
equal opportunities in obtaining positions of political power. In
the TAR, where the majority of the population are Buddhist believers,
this policy has the consequence of excluding the majority of the
population for that very reason from becoming members of the political
party that governs the PRC and the TAR.
Lack of freedom of expression in relation to religious belief is
found in the case of the denial of the right of individuals to express
their view regarding who of the two appointed incarnations of the
Panchen Lama is the true one. In the stands in the streets in Lhasa
selling pictures of Lamas there were thus no pictures for sale of
the incarnation appointed by the Dalai Lama (incidentally there
were no pictures of the incarnation appointed in China either).
On the basis of our admittedly very limited observations we would
tend to agree with those who conclude that Buddhism is still a very
important factor in Tibetan culture and society. Buddhism is in
many respects a very visible part of contemporary Tibet. The crowds
of pilgrims in Lhasa having travelled from the various Tibetan areas
of the PRC as well as from abroad are obvious parts of this picture.
These scenes could also be observed at the former residences of
the Dalai Lama, the Potala and the Norbulinka, which appeared to
function as temples and goals of pilgrimage (with the somewhat odd
exception that the monks there were not dressed as monks). The influence
of religion could be seen in some rather surprising observations
such as one taking place in the Potala when our guide (a young woman)
suddenly prostrated in front of one of the altars. We would also
like to add the fact that a number of Tibetan Buddhist books were
available in the official bookstore we visited during our meanderings
in the streets of Lhasa.
A pragmatic approach to the issue of freedom of religion suggests
that the control and the limitations that Tibetan Buddhism is subject
to can to a large extent be understood as results of the conflict
with the Dalai Lama and the exile Tibetans. To the extent that the
dialogue with the Dalai Lama and the exile Tibetans develops (so
that some form of rapprochement is looked upon as a possible solution)
one may also envisage improvements in the situation of Tibetan Buddhism.
At the same time one should be aware of the possibility that inherent
tensions between traditional and modernizing forces within Tibetan
society may come to the surface as the process of modernization
and secularisation accelerates.
CONCLUSIONS
The visit was in our view very useful as it resulted in obtaining
considerable information throwing light upon the situation of Buddhism
in contemporary Chinese society. We had numerous opportunities to
meet representatives of SARA from various levels of the organisation,
as well as religious leaders. Thus we were able to deepen our dialogue
with our Chinese partners about the place of religion in the Chinese
society. The form of the dialogue did, as far as we could judge,
further the purpose of mutual understanding and appreciation of
the implications of the international treatises on freedom of religion,
as it gave us numerous opportunities to exchange views on these
issues in both formal as well as more informal settings.
As mentioned above, our assumptions regarding the changing official
attitude regarding the place of religion, specifically that of Buddhism,
emphasising its role as an important component of traditional culture,
was confirmed by our experiences during this visit to China. Thus
the value of relating the general dialogue on the issue of freedom
of religion to indigenous religions, such as Buddhism and Daoism,
seemed to have been corroborated.
In this connection we would also like to stress the importance
of gaining knowledge about the situation of the traditional religions
in China in order to have an accurate understanding of Chinese religious
policies. Our focus on Buddhism and Daoism, which have been little
studied in their modern Chinese context, may therefore be a needed
contribution to the general ongoing dialogue with the Chinese in
the field of freedom of religion.
A visit such as that made by the Oslo Coalition to China in 2002
can also be viewed as part of a wider context of communication between
China and other countries in this field. The importance of such
communication is underlined by the accelerating changes presently
taking place in China. Consultations of this kind may thus be regarded
as a useful component in the Chinese considerations of its policies
in relation to religion. Assuming this to be the case we therefore
think that our contributions in this respect may prove useful, and
we will therefore make the following suggestions regarding major
points of a continued dialogue with China on the issue of freedom
of religion:
- A continuation of the dialogue on freedom of religion with
religions such as Buddhism, Daoism and Chinese folk religions
as the empirical context.
- A strengthening of the link between this dialogue and the
dialogue conducted by legal experts in the field of human rights
in China as well as in other countries. The discussions taking
place within various circles in China regarding the issue of ratification
of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights make this challenge
particularly pertinent.
- A continuation of the dialogue on freedom of religion in
the TAR and in other areas inhabited by Tibetans cooperating closely
with Chinese administrative bodies on religion such as the SARA
as well as the CBA, taking as a starting point the dialogue with
Chinese Buddhists.
Oslo Coalition, Oslo 03.06.03
LITERATURE
Crook, John: "The Revival of Buddhism in China, in "New
Ch'an Forum No. 23 winter 2000, Bristol 2000.
Dean, Kenneth: Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China,
Princeton University Press, Princeton 1993.
Goldstein, Melvyn C. and Kapstein, Matthew T.: Buddhism in Contemporary
Tibet, University of California Press, Berkeley 1998
Human Rights Watch/Asia: China: State Control of Religion. New
York,1997.
MacInnis, Donald, E.: Religion in China Today: Policy and Practice.
New York: Maryknoll, 1989.
Porter, Bill: Road to Heaven; Encounters with Chinese Hermits,
San Francisco 1993
Prip-Møller, Johannes: Chinese Buddhist Monasteries, Hong
Kong University Press, Hong Kong 1982.
Welch, Holmes: The Practice of Chinese Buddhism, 1900-1950, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge Mass. 1967.
Welch, Holmes: The Buddhist Revival in China, Harvard University
Press, Cambridge Mass. 1968.
Welch, Holmes: Buddhism under Mao, Harvard University Press, Cambridge
Mass. 1972.
WEB SITES:
Bailin Monastery homepage (mostly in Chinese): http://bailinsi.fjnet.com/
This web site is regularly being updated with Buddhist news from
China: http://www.fjnet.com/
An older web site is: http://www.buddhism.com.cn
This web site contains information about Daoism in contemporary
China: http://www.taorestore.org/
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